IMPROVING WEAK SOILS WITH
REINFORCED STONE COLUMNS
Ahmed Hussein Majeed
Civil Engineering Department, Engineering College, University of Thi-Qar, Iraq.
yamahmed2022@gmail.com
Alaa H. J. Al-Rkaby*
Professor, Civil Engineering, University of Thi-Qar
alaa.al-rakaby@utq.edu.iq
Reception: 20/02/2023 Acceptance: 25/04/2023 Publication: 11/05/2023
Suggested citation:
Ahmed H. M. and Alaa H. J. Al-Rkaby (2023). Improving weak soils with
reinforced stone columns. 3C Tecnología. Glosas de innovación aplicada a
la pyme, 12(2), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n2e44.78-91
https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n2e44.78-91
3C Tecnología. Glosas de innovación aplicadas a la pyme. ISSN: 2254-4143
Ed.44 | Iss.12 | N.2 April - June 2023
78
IMPROVING WEAK SOILS WITH
REINFORCED STONE COLUMNS
Ahmed Hussein Majeed
Civil Engineering Department, Engineering College, University of Thi-Qar, Iraq.
yamahmed2022@gmail.com
Alaa H. J. Al-Rkaby*
Professor, Civil Engineering, University of Thi-Qar
alaa.al-rakaby@utq.edu.iq
Reception: 20/02/2023 Acceptance: 25/04/2023 Publication: 11/05/2023
Suggested citation:
Ahmed H. M. and Alaa H. J. Al-Rkaby (2023). Improving weak soils with
reinforced stone columns. 3C Tecnología. Glosas de innovación aplicada a
la pyme, 12(2), 78-91. https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n2e44.78-91
https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n2e44.78-91
ABSTRACT
The usage of stone columns is one of the best ways to accentuate the ground.
minimize settlement and increase the soil's carrying capacity. In this study, stone
columns with complete geogrid reinforcement built of recycled concrete aggregates
were utilized. Soft clay soils have been strengthened in a variety of methods. The
results indicated that the use of stone columns made of recycled concrete aggregates
fully reinforced with geogrid resulted in a significant improvement in the BC of soils.
Compared to natural soil, the use of stone and double columns reinforced with a
geogrid network improved the BC of the soil by 9% with an increase in the percentage
of improvement when using other patterns.
KEYWORDS
Bearing Capacity, Stone Column, Improving, Geogrid
INDEX
ABSTRACT
KEYWORDS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. MATERIALS USED:
2.1. Soil Sile
2.2. Recycled concrete aggregate
2.3. Geogrids
3. SETUP OF THE STONE COLUMN
4. SET THE RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATES (RCA) COLUMN AS NEEDED
5. TEST PROCEDURES
6. RESULTS
6.1. Soil test normal (soft clay)
6.2. Reinforced Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA) Columns
7. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
REFERENCES
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1. INTRODUCTION
Soft clayey soils are widespread across the world, and they may be found in Iraq's
central and southern regions, notably in areas close to wetlands. Since cities are
quickly growing and the population is rising, one of the key answers is to improve the
geotechnical properties of soft soils since it is essential to use such soil as a
foundation or construction material for various projects. There are several techniques
for enhancing soft soil. To fortify the brittle clay soil, stone columns are used. It has an
undrained shear strength (cu) of 10 Kap and is exposed to various types of stresses
Stone columns can be used to increase the shear strength of soft soil, speed soil
consolidation, and reduce the possibility for soil liquefaction. The stone columns are
referred to as floating stone columns because, when a thick, soft layer is deeper than
25 meters, they do not reach the stable layer of soil. (Datye, 1982; Abdullah et al.,
2020) (1,2). (2017) (Fattah et al.) Length to the diameter of the stone column The
strength of stone columns was allegedly affected by several factors, including the
column's stiffness, length, diameter, and replacement ratio for the area, according to
several past studies (3). (2012) Mohammed Al-Wailey A laboratory study was
presented to examine the relationship between the load improvement and the
percentage of the replaced area by using different diameters (20-30-40-50-60 mm),
which corresponds to the area replacement ratio. This study was done regarding the
effect of the area replacement ratio on the load-bearing capacity of the soil treated
with stone columns (0.042). - 0.099 - 0.333 - 0.563 (within a test container used in
laboratories with varied shear strengths) (inside a test container used in laboratories
with various shear strengths) 11, 16, and 22 kpa. The results show that the tolerance
improvement ratios are 1.16, 1.29, and 1.64. 2.29, Along with the growth of stopping
additional loads when the final settlement reached 40 mm in soils with a shear
strength of 11 Kpa and treated with stone columns at a replacement ratio of 0.042 -
0.099 - 0.333 - 0.563) respectively, it was also noticed that the percentage of
increased Slightly bearing with increasing load and reaching the top by the end of the
test and also found the highest percentage of improvement of soil resistance at shear
strength 16 Kpa (4). Numerous researchers have expressed similar opinions (5–11). A
lab experiment was conducted to show how the stress concentration ratio is impacted
by various circumstances (SCR). The peak stress concentration ratio when the
internal friction angle of the stone column was between 4 and 5.5 was noted to be
between 4-6 for a group of parameters and materials. This differs from 38 the 42 and
is also significantly influenced by the thickness of the blanket material forming the
column and the strength of the surrounding soil (12). In theory, both are consistent
with this (Barksdale and Bachus, 1983, Han and Ye 1991, Aslani and J. Nazariafshar
2021) (13–15). Some research and studies have turned to encase the stone column in
geogrid or another high-tension material to counteract the weakness caused by a flaw
in the soil around it. Where it was noted that the packing boosts the stone column's
bearing capacity and hardness and that the coated stone column behaves
significantly better than the unwrapped column (16,17). Researchers found that
encapsulating the upper portion of a stone column at 2.5 D (D) the pillar's diameter
has demonstrated its usefulness in this field, resulting in a precipitation reduction of up
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80
1. INTRODUCTION
Soft clayey soils are widespread across the world, and they may be found in Iraq's
central and southern regions, notably in areas close to wetlands. Since cities are
quickly growing and the population is rising, one of the key answers is to improve the
geotechnical properties of soft soils since it is essential to use such soil as a
foundation or construction material for various projects. There are several techniques
for enhancing soft soil. To fortify the brittle clay soil, stone columns are used. It has an
undrained shear strength (cu) of 10 Kap and is exposed to various types of stresses
Stone columns can be used to increase the shear strength of soft soil, speed soil
consolidation, and reduce the possibility for soil liquefaction. The stone columns are
referred to as floating stone columns because, when a thick, soft layer is deeper than
25 meters, they do not reach the stable layer of soil. (Datye, 1982; Abdullah et al.,
2020) (1,2). (2017) (Fattah et al.) Length to the diameter of the stone column The
strength of stone columns was allegedly affected by several factors, including the
column's stiffness, length, diameter, and replacement ratio for the area, according to
several past studies (3). (2012) Mohammed Al-Wailey A laboratory study was
presented to examine the relationship between the load improvement and the
percentage of the replaced area by using different diameters (20-30-40-50-60 mm),
which corresponds to the area replacement ratio. This study was done regarding the
effect of the area replacement ratio on the load-bearing capacity of the soil treated
with stone columns (0.042). - 0.099 - 0.333 - 0.563 (within a test container used in
laboratories with varied shear strengths) (inside a test container used in laboratories
with various shear strengths) 11, 16, and 22 kpa. The results show that the tolerance
improvement ratios are 1.16, 1.29, and 1.64. 2.29, Along with the growth of stopping
additional loads when the final settlement reached 40 mm in soils with a shear
strength of 11 Kpa and treated with stone columns at a replacement ratio of 0.042 -
0.099 - 0.333 - 0.563) respectively, it was also noticed that the percentage of
increased Slightly bearing with increasing load and reaching the top by the end of the
test and also found the highest percentage of improvement of soil resistance at shear
strength 16 Kpa (4). Numerous researchers have expressed similar opinions (5–11). A
lab experiment was conducted to show how the stress concentration ratio is impacted
by various circumstances (SCR). The peak stress concentration ratio when the
internal friction angle of the stone column was between 4 and 5.5 was noted to be
between 4-6 for a group of parameters and materials. This differs from 38 the 42 and
is also significantly influenced by the thickness of the blanket material forming the
column and the strength of the surrounding soil (12). In theory, both are consistent
with this (Barksdale and Bachus, 1983, Han and Ye 1991, Aslani and J. Nazariafshar
2021) (13–15). Some research and studies have turned to encase the stone column in
geogrid or another high-tension material to counteract the weakness caused by a flaw
in the soil around it. Where it was noted that the packing boosts the stone column's
bearing capacity and hardness and that the coated stone column behaves
significantly better than the unwrapped column (16,17). Researchers found that
encapsulating the upper portion of a stone column at 2.5 D (D) the pillar's diameter
has demonstrated its usefulness in this field, resulting in a precipitation reduction of up
https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n2e44.78-91
to 50%. (18,19). The encasement, which has several advantages, further restrains the
stone column. increased column stiffness, prevention of stone loss into the soft clay
around it, and preservation of the drainage and frictional properties of the stone
aggregates (20–22). The bearing capacity and porosity pressure are influenced by the
distribution of various types of stone columns. This was proven through a laboratory
experiment in which soil with a very low shear resistance of 5.5 Kap was obtained,
and several patterns (single, bi-plan, triangle, quadrilateral, and square) were taken.
The stone has a 180 mm diameter and a 30 mm diameter when it reaches the length
of the column. The material of the stone column has a friction angle of 48.5 degrees.
He noted that despite the percentage of replacement in the area is very small, he
noticed an increase in the loading capacity of 79, 97, 132, 148, and 145%,
respectively. He also noted that the use of the square pattern is more effective. of the
square distribution even though they have the same area substitution ratio (22). In this
study, the stone columns covered with a comprehensive cover with a length of 1.5
meters and a diameter of 15 cm were discussed. The examination was conducted in a
field manner, and several patterns were taken (double, quadruple, pentagonal,
column).
2. MATERIALS USED:
2.1. SOIL SILE
The Uniform Soil Classification System (USCS) assigned the Soft Clay used in this
pilot study the following classification: (CL). The clay particle size distribution is seen
in Figure 1. Table 1 illustrates the physical characteristics of soft clay soil.
Table 1.The physical characteristics of soft clay soil
Property Values
Type soil Soft clay
L.L% 45
P.L% 23
Maximum dry unit weight (KN/m3) 19.5
C (kpa) 20
4º
E(mpa) 15
Poisons ratio 0.45
Symbol according to Unified Soil Classification System CL
Θ
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Figure 1. Grain size distribution of Soft clay
2.2. RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATE
Precast
concrete cubes were obtained from the consulting lab of Dhi Qar
University to carry out the lab testing for this component. To achieve a steady
gradient, they were broken up with a hammer and sent through a 25 mm filter (1-2.5
cm). aggregates from recycled concrete, Figure 2. (RCA). The physical attributes of
recycled concrete aggregates are listed in Table (2). (RCA).
Table 2.The characteristics of RCA:
Property Values
Specific gravity 2.35
Total water absorption 2.40%
Moisture content 0.45%
Bulk density (Loose) 1,355 kg/m3
Bulk density (compacted) 1,590 kg/m3
Fineness modulus 6.23
Elongation index 15.5%
Flajiness 5.8%
C (kpa) 0
Poisons ratio 0.35
45º
Θ
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Figure 1. Grain size distribution of Soft clay
2.2. RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATE
Precast concrete cubes were obtained from the consulting lab of Dhi Qar
University to carry out the lab testing for this component. To achieve a steady
gradient, they were broken up with a hammer and sent through a 25 mm filter (1-2.5
cm). aggregates from recycled concrete, Figure 2. (RCA). The physical attributes of
recycled concrete aggregates are listed in Table (2). (RCA).
Table 2.The characteristics of RCA:
Values
2.35
2.40%
0.45%
1,355 kg/m3
1,590 kg/m3
6.23
15.5%
5.8%
0
0.35
45º
Θ
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Figure 2. Recycled Concrete Aggregates (RCA)
2.3. GEOGRIDS
A high-density polyethylene (HDPE) net was used in the experiment. The (Netlon
CE121) was made available for this publication by the Ministry of Science and
Technology. Table (3) and Figure 3 show the mechanical and physical properties of
the Netlon CE121
Table 3. Physical characteristics of the Netlon CE121
Properties Values
Material High-density polyethylene
Type CE121
Mesh aperture (mm*mm) 6*8
Weight per unit area (N/m2) 7.15
Machine direction 9.8
Transversal direction 6.15
Machine direction 68
Transversal direction 60
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Figure 3. Netlon CE121
3. SETUP OF THE STONE COLUMN
The position of each stone column was precisely delineated and indicated with the
steel bar. An auger machine was used to drill the stone column to a depth of 150 cm
and a diameter of 15 cm. The auger machine sent its blades into the stone column. To
be inserted into the column, geogrid reinforcement was also cut into circular layers
with an 8–9 cm diameter. The circler layers and owner surface of the reinforcement
column were then installed with the strain gauge. The geogrid strengthened down has
been installed chorally Six layers of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) were poured
within the enclosed hollos, and the RCA material was compacted using a vibrating
machine. Following that, the strain gauge was attached to and installed on the geogrid
column. The ground surface was covered with nylon, and a vibrating machine strain
gauge was used to insert recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) into the geotextile
cavity.
4. SET THE RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATES
(RCA) COLUMN AS NEEDED
Case 1.
In this model, soft clay soil was taken in its natural form without any improvement,
and a numerical examination was conducted on it in addition to the examination of
precipitation and the amount of load bearing in its natural form
Case 2.
In this case, the effect of reinforcement was investigated using Recycled Concrete
Aggregates (RCA) Figure 4 shows the patterns of this case where geogrid casing with
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Figure 3. Netlon CE121
3. SETUP OF THE STONE COLUMN
The position of each stone column was precisely delineated and indicated with the
steel bar. An auger machine was used to drill the stone column to a depth of 150 cm
and a diameter of 15 cm. The auger machine sent its blades into the stone column. To
be inserted into the column, geogrid reinforcement was also cut into circular layers
with an 8–9 cm diameter. The circler layers and owner surface of the reinforcement
column were then installed with the strain gauge. The geogrid strengthened down has
been installed chorally Six layers of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) were poured
within the enclosed hollos, and the RCA material was compacted using a vibrating
machine. Following that, the strain gauge was attached to and installed on the geogrid
column. The ground surface was covered with nylon, and a vibrating machine strain
gauge was used to insert recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) into the geotextile
cavity.
4. SET THE RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATES
(RCA) COLUMN AS NEEDED
Case 1.
In this model, soft clay soil was taken in its natural form without any improvement,
and a numerical examination was conducted on it in addition to the examination of
precipitation and the amount of load bearing in its natural form
Case 2.
In this case, the effect of reinforcement was investigated using Recycled Concrete
Aggregates (RCA) Figure 4 shows the patterns of this case where geogrid casing with
https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n2e44.78-91
diameter and length of 15 cm and 150 cm was used to cover the Recycled Concrete
Aggregate (RCA) patterns.
Figure 4. Patterns of stone columns with layers of geogrid with comprehensive encapsulation
5. TEST PROCEDURES
Twelve-millimeter rebar was used to strengthen the piles, and five bars were added
to each pile. With the use of an oxygen torch, it was vertically welded until it reached a
height of 43.5 cm. After that, an antioxidant was used to stain it. The complete steel
structure was put on the pillars while regulating the horizontality and straightness after
a steel foundation with a thickness of 12 mm was welded into the concrete pillars. He
placed two of his LVDT landing sensors on either side of a test plate that was
supported by a side stand. All sensors, sensors, and measurement tools were
attached to data recorders after the tests were conducted using a plate load test.
Using a geotechnical data collecting system, the outputs from load cells, displacement
transducers, and strain gauges were measured and recorded. To monitor the status of
trials in real-time, data is automatically uploaded in real-time to a PC. Compatible with
pressure transducers, linear LDT transducers, LVDT tuning transducers, strain gauge
load cells, and potentiometric displacement transducers. A steel foundation with
dimensions of 75*75 cm and a thickness of 25 mm was employed, and dirt was
deposited in a layer of 10 cm under the base of the area in up to 64 distinct channels.
The field methods for the examination process are shown in Figure 4.
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Figure 5. The process of checking and connecting devices
6. RESULTS
6.1. SOIL TEST NORMAL (SOFT CLAY)
Figure (6). The ultimate carrying capacity value, which shows the connection
between pressure and settling of untreated soft clay soil with stone columns, was
calculated using the double tangent approach. The BC value was discovered to be
around 90 kpa, translating to a settlement of 29.5 mm.
Figure 6. Therelationship between pressure and settlement for untreated soft clay soils
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Figure 5. The process of checking and connecting devices
6. RESULTS
6.1. SOIL TEST NORMAL (SOFT CLAY)
Figure (6). The ultimate carrying capacity value, which shows the connection
between pressure and settling of untreated soft clay soil with stone columns, was
calculated using the double tangent approach. The BC value was discovered to be
around 90 kpa, translating to a settlement of 29.5 mm.
Figure 6. Therelationship between pressure and settlement for untreated soft clay soils
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6.2. REINFORCED RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATES
(RCA) COLUMNS
In this investigation, seven different types of stone columns consisting of recycled
concrete aggregate (RCA) reinforced in annular form with geogrid were installed.
In this test, two stone columns were installed which were wrapped by geotextile
nets to improve the bearing capacity of soft clay soil. From the results, we notice a
clear increase in the final load-bearing capacity of the soil treated with two stone
columns coated with geogrid, where the final carrying capacity reached 110 kpa, offset
by a decrease in leveling of 29 mm. The encapsulation increases the radial pressure
at all stages of loading. In addition, it provides an increase in lateral excavation, and
from the previously mentioned relationship, the improvement ratio is about 1.29.
in
this research, five stone columns were installed inside the weak and soft clay soil to
improve its properties. We notice from the graph a clear increase in the final load
capacity, as well as a clear decrease in the leveling rate, in addition to the effect of the
number of columns embedded under the foundation in increasing the bearing
capacity. There is a clear effect of the packing, as the clay and its hardening do not
provide sufficient confining pressure, as the packing overcame this deficiency as well.
the encapsulation increases the tensile strength of the stone columns, in addition to
that, not the limitation and hardness was the reason for that improvement, but the
initial strain of the geogrid that occurs during fixation also contributes to improving the
rigidity of the stone column and the reduction of settlement when compared to the
total absorptive capacity of the untreated soil, which reached 85 kpa. The
improvement in the coated columns amounted to 160 kpa, i.e., double the value,
corresponding to an improvement in the leveling rate, which reached 29.9 mm. From
the relationship to find the improvement rate, it amounted to 1.88.
In this field research, several stone columns were installed inside the weak and soft
clay soil. We notice a very clear improvement in the carrying capacity of the applied
loads when compared to the untreated soil. The reason is due to the strengthening of
the vertical position and the drainage layer of the stone column by acting as a good
filter file to prevent the mixing of fines with the stone material produced by the
packaging, as it resists the tensile strength of a collar in the casing and develops
confining pressure to prevent the occurrence of Lateral bulging as well, whenever the
pressure in the casing increases, the stiffness of the stone column increases, and
thus this increases the final absorption capacity and a clear decrease in leveling, as
the absorption capacity after improvement reached 190 kpa, corresponding to a
decrease in leveling at a rate of 25 mm. The improvement ratio was found to be 2.2.
Figure 7 shows the relationship between applied pressure and settlement for
the selected stone columns
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Figure 7. Relationship between applied stress and stability of masonry columns of recycled
concrete aggregates reinforced with geo-cladding materials (RCA).
The percentage improvement achieved by the stone columns is represented by the
relationship. Table 4. shows the endurance capacity ratio (BCR) values.
(1)
Table 4. The bearing capacity ratio (BCR) values
7. CONCLUSIONS
1. It is affordable to employ recycled concrete aggregates (RCA).
2.
Using stone columns composed of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA)
improved weak soils effectively.
3.
In contrast to conventional stone columns, geosynthetic-encased stone
columns frequently display linear behavior in response to pressure settlement
without displaying any catastrophic breakage. The stiffness of the geosynthetic
B
CR =
bearing capacity of reinforced soil
bearing capacity of unreinforced soil
Number of stone columns Bearing capacity ration BCR%
2 1.69
5 1.88
6 2.2
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Figure 7. Relationship between applied stress and stability of masonry columns of recycled
concrete aggregates reinforced with geo-cladding materials (RCA).
The percentage improvement achieved by the stone columns is represented by the
relationship. Table 4. shows the endurance capacity ratio (BCR) values.
(1)
Table 4. The bearing capacity ratio (BCR) values
7. CONCLUSIONS
1. It is affordable to employ recycled concrete aggregates (RCA).
2. Using stone columns composed of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA)
improved weak soils effectively.
3. In contrast to conventional stone columns, geosynthetic-encased stone
columns frequently display linear behavior in response to pressure settlement
without displaying any catastrophic breakage. The stiffness of the geosynthetic
BCR = bearing capacity of reinforced soil
bearing capacity of unreinforced soil
Number of stone columns
Bearing capacity ration BCR%
2
1.69
5
1.88
6
2.2
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material used for encasing determines how much the geosynthetic
encasement improves the load capacity.
4.
The rigidity of the geosynthetic utilized for the encasement also affects how
well the stone column performs.
5.
Using geotextile and geogrid as the stone column, encasing the granular
blanket reinforcement increases its efficacy. increases the reinforced soil and
stone column's rigidity. Due to the soil particles being caught in the stiff, tensile
geogrid apertures, considerable frictional strengths are generated at the
geogrid-soil interface. Additionally, geotextile increases bearing capacity by
preventing the stone column's components from sinking into loose soil.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the Department of Civil Engineering, College of
Engineering, University of Thi-Qar for their support in producing this research paper.
The authors are also proud to submit this paper to the International Conference on
Geotechnical and Energetic - Iraq Conference
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(10) Samanta M, Bhowmik R. (2017). 3D numerical analysis of piled raft foundation in
stone column improved soft soil. International Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, 13(5), 474-483. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2017.1368139
(11) Abd-almohi HH, Alismaeel ZT, M-Ridha MJ. (2022). Broad-ranging review:
configurations, membrane types, governing equations and influencing factors on
microbial desalination cell technology. Journal of Chemical Technology and
Biotechnology. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/
jctb.7176
(12) Kumar G, Samanta M. (2020). Experimental evaluation of stress concentration
ratio of soft soil reinforced with stone column. Innovations in Infrastructure
Solutions, 5(1).
(13) Han J, Ye S-L. (n.d.). SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR CONSOLIDATION RATE OF
STONE COLUMN REINFORCED FOUNDATIONS.
(14) Aslani M, Nazariafshar J. (2021). Experimental Study of the Effect of Stress
Concentration Ratio on the Shear Strength of Loose Sand Reinforced by Stone
Column. Journal of Engineering Geology, 15(1), 35-66. Retrieved from http://
jeg.khu.ac.ir/article-1-2813-en.html
(15) Alismaeel ZT, Abbar AH, Saeed OF. (2022). Application of central composite
design approach for optimisation of zinc removal from aqueous solution using a
Flow-by fixed bed bioelectrochemical reactor. Separation and Purification
Technology, 287, 120510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2022.120510
(16) Murugesan S, Rajagopal K. (2009). Studies on the Behavior of Single and Group
of Geosynthetic Encased Stone Columns. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 136(1), 129-139. https://doi.org/10.1061/
(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000187
(17) Murugesan S, Rajagopal K. (2015). Model tests on geosynthetic-encased stone
columns. Geosynthetics International, 14(6), 346-354. https://doi.org/10.1680/
gein.2007.14.6.346
(18) Y.K T. (2012). Reinforced granular column for deep soil stabilization: A review.
International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering, 2(3). Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
271097907_Reinforced_granular_column_for_deep_soil_stabilization_A_review
(19) Hataf N, Nabipour N, Sadr A. (2020). Experimental and numerical study on the
bearing capacity of encased stone columns. International Journal of Geo-
Engineering, 11(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40703-020-00111-6
(20) Sulaymon AH, Ebrahim SE, Ridha MJM. (2014). Dynamic Behavior of Pb(II) and
Cr(III) Biosorption onto Dead Anaerobic Biomass in Fixed-Bed Column, Single
and Binary Systems. Journal of Engineering, 20(5). Retrieved from https://
www.iasj.net/iasj/article/88221
(21) Alexiew D, Brokemper D, Lothspeich S. (2005). Geotextile Encased Columns
(GEC): Load Capacity, Geotextile Selection and Pre-Design Graphs.
https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n2e44.78-91
3C Tecnología. Glosas de innovación aplicadas a la pyme. ISSN: 2254-4143
Ed.44 | Iss.12 | N.2 April - June 2023
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(8) Shien Ng K. (n.d.). SETTLEMENT RATIO OF FLOATING STONE COLUMNS
FOR SMALL AND LARGE LOADED AREAS.
(9) Black JA, Sivakumar V, Bell A. (2011). The settlement performance of stone
column foundations. Geotechnique, 61(11), 909-922.
(10) Samanta M, Bhowmik R. (2017). 3D numerical analysis of piled raft foundation in
stone column improved soft soil. International Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, 13(5), 474-483. https://doi.org/10.1080/19386362.2017.1368139
(11) Abd-almohi HH, Alismaeel ZT, M-Ridha MJ. (2022). Broad-ranging review:
configurations, membrane types, governing equations and influencing factors on
microbial desalination cell technology. Journal of Chemical Technology and
Biotechnology. Retrieved from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/
jctb.7176
(12) Kumar G, Samanta M. (2020). Experimental evaluation of stress concentration
ratio of soft soil reinforced with stone column. Innovations in Infrastructure
Solutions, 5(1).
(13) Han J, Ye S-L. (n.d.). SIMPLIFIED METHOD FOR CONSOLIDATION RATE OF
STONE COLUMN REINFORCED FOUNDATIONS.
(14) Aslani M, Nazariafshar J. (2021). Experimental Study of the Effect of Stress
Concentration Ratio on the Shear Strength of Loose Sand Reinforced by Stone
Column. Journal of Engineering Geology, 15(1), 35-66. Retrieved from http://
jeg.khu.ac.ir/article-1-2813-en.html
(15) Alismaeel ZT, Abbar AH, Saeed OF. (2022). Application of central composite
design approach for optimisation of zinc removal from aqueous solution using a
Flow-by fixed bed bioelectrochemical reactor. Separation and Purification
Technology, 287, 120510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2022.120510
(16) Murugesan S, Rajagopal K. (2009). Studies on the Behavior of Single and Group
of Geosynthetic Encased Stone Columns. Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 136(1), 129-139. https://doi.org/10.1061/
(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0000187
(17) Murugesan S, Rajagopal K. (2015). Model tests on geosynthetic-encased stone
columns. Geosynthetics International, 14(6), 346-354. https://doi.org/10.1680/
gein.2007.14.6.346
(18) Y.K T. (2012). Reinforced granular column for deep soil stabilization: A review.
International Journal of Civil and Structural Engineering, 2(3). Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
271097907_Reinforced_granular_column_for_deep_soil_stabilization_A_review
(19) Hataf N, Nabipour N, Sadr A. (2020). Experimental and numerical study on the
bearing capacity of encased stone columns. International Journal of Geo-
Engineering, 11(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40703-020-00111-6
(20) Sulaymon AH, Ebrahim SE, Ridha MJM. (2014). Dynamic Behavior of Pb(II) and
Cr(III) Biosorption onto Dead Anaerobic Biomass in Fixed-Bed Column, Single
and Binary Systems. Journal of Engineering, 20(5). Retrieved from https://
www.iasj.net/iasj/article/88221
(21) Alexiew D, Brokemper D, Lothspeich S. (2005). Geotextile Encased Columns
(GEC): Load Capacity, Geotextile Selection and Pre-Design Graphs.
https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n2e44.78-91
(22) Karkush M, Jabbar A. (2022). Effect of several patterns of floating stone columns
on the bearing capacity and porewater pressure in saturated soft soil. Journal of
Engineering Research, 10(2B), 84-97.
https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n2e44.78-91
3C Tecnología. Glosas de innovación aplicadas a la pyme. ISSN: 2254-4143
Ed.44 | Iss.12 | N.2 April - June 2023
91