INVESTIGATION OF WASTE COOKING OIL-
DIESEL BLEND WITH COPPER OXIDE
ADDITIVES AS FUEL FOR DIESEL ENGINE
UNDER VARIATIONS IN FUEL INJECTION
PRESSURE
Madhuri G. Chatur
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sandip University,
Nashik (India).
madhurisdeokar@gmail.com - https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8305-1425
Anil Maheshwari
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik
(India).
anil.maheshwari@sandipuniversity.edu.in - https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7746-8531
Srinidhi Campli
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, RSCOE, Pune (India).
srinidhicampli@gmail.com - https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4998-5608
Reception: 18/11/2022 Acceptance: 03/01/2023 Publication: 27/01/2023
Suggested citation:
G. C., Madhuri, M., Anil and C. Srinidhi. (2023). Investigation Of Waste
Cooking Oil-Diesel Blend With Copper Oxide Additives As Fuel For Diesel
Engine Under Variations In Fuel Injection Pressure. 3C TecnologÃa. Glosas
de innovación aplicada a la pyme, 12(1), 202-223. https://doi.org/
10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n1e43.202-223
https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n1e43.202-223
3C TecnologÃa. Glosas de innovación aplicadas a la pyme. ISSN: 2254-4143
Ed.43 | Iss.12 | N.1 January - March 2023
202
INVESTIGATION OF WASTE COOKING OIL-
DIESEL BLEND WITH COPPER OXIDE
ADDITIVES AS FUEL FOR DIESEL ENGINE
UNDER VARIATIONS IN FUEL INJECTION
PRESSURE
Madhuri G. Chatur
Research Scholar, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sandip University,
Nashik (India).
madhurisdeokar@gmail.com - https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8305-1425
Anil Maheshwari
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sandip University, Nashik
(India).
anil.maheshwari@sandipuniversity.edu.in - https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7746-8531
Srinidhi Campli
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, RSCOE, Pune (India).
srinidhicampli@gmail.com - https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4998-5608
Reception: 18/11/2022 Acceptance: 03/01/2023 Publication: 27/01/2023
Suggested citation:
G. C., Madhuri, M., Anil and C. Srinidhi. (2023). Investigation Of Waste
Cooking Oil-Diesel Blend With Copper Oxide Additives As Fuel For Diesel
Engine Under Variations In Fuel Injection Pressure. 3C TecnologÃa. Glosas
de innovación aplicada a la pyme, 12(1), 202-223. https://doi.org/
10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n1e43.202-223
https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n1e43.202-223
ABSTRACT
Fuel Injection is a significant factor when biodiesel-diesel blends are fired in diesel
engines as they have very diverse property when related to diesel. The current work
describes unusual experimental study of CI engine fuelled with Waste cooking methyl
ester with copper oxide nano additives at varying fuel injection pressures. The Copper
oxide nano additives were manufactured using homogenous addition method and
were subjected to studies such as XRD and SEM characterization. These synthesized
nanoparticles were later added in waste cooking oil biodiesel blend (WCO20) with
levels of 10 ppm, 20 ppm, 30 ppm, and 40ppm. The results were noted from a DI-CI
VCR engine coupled with an eddy current dynamometer. The addition of CuO
particles reduces the ignition delay of WCO20 and raises the thermal efficiency of the
engine by an average of 3.9% and limits HC emission by 15.6%.
KEYWORDS
Diesel engine, Performance and emission, NOx emission, nano fuel additives
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PAPER INDEX
ABSTRACT
KEYWORDS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. NOVELTY OF CURRENT STUDY
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
2.1. NANOPARTICLE BLENDS
2.2. BIODIESEL PREPARATION
2.3. PREPARATION OF TEST FUELS
3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. PERFORMANCE STUDIES
4.1.1. BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
4.1.2. BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
4.1.3. EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURES
4.2. EMISSION STUDIES
4.2.1. OXIDES OF CARBON
4.2.2. CARBON MONOXIDE
4.2.3. HYDROCARBON EMISSION
4.2.4. NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSION
4.2.5. SMOKE LEVELS
5. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
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PAPER INDEX
ABSTRACT
KEYWORDS
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. NOVELTY OF CURRENT STUDY
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
2.1. NANOPARTICLE BLENDS
2.2. BIODIESEL PREPARATION
2.3. PREPARATION OF TEST FUELS
3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. PERFORMANCE STUDIES
4.1.1. BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
4.1.2. BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
4.1.3. EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURES
4.2. EMISSION STUDIES
4.2.1. OXIDES OF CARBON
4.2.2. CARBON MONOXIDE
4.2.3. HYDROCARBON EMISSION
4.2.4. NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSION
4.2.5. SMOKE LEVELS
5. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
https://doi.org/10.17993/3ctecno.2023.v12n1e43.202-223
1. INTRODUCTION
The frequent rise in fuel prices leads to higher inflation rates which create a hard
time for the common man to face day-to-day economic challenges [1, 2]. The primary
fuel for the transportation sector is diesel and with a high number of diesel engines
running today, researchers have been tasked to find alternate fuel for CI engines [3,
4]. Diesel engines when patented, used peanut oil and with their strategy of fuel
combustion being compression ignition, thereby denser fuels can be used [5, 6].
Vegetable oils when fuelled in diesel engines in cold environments tend to clog fuel
supply due to their clouding effect at lower temperatures [7, 8]. So the usage of
straight oils as an alternate fuel is out of the question and hence oils need to be
processed to reduce their density and viscosity such that they can be more suitable
for diesel engines [9, 10]. Oils when transesterified lead to ester formation and when
these esters possess properties proportional when equated to diesel fuel. But still,
when the properties of pure esters are compared to conventional diesel fuel they
factor out the possibility to be used as an alternative fuel to diesel engines [11, 12]. To
address this issue, Esterified oils or Biodiesel are blended with diesel fuel and by
doing so, the properties of the Esterified oil-diesel blend have in-line fuel properties
[13, 14]. When these blends are combusted in regular diesel engines, the thermal
performance is good and emissions like CO and HC are limited [15, 16, 1-3]. But the
real problem which restricts the use of Blended Diesel-Oil esters is the fuel
consumption rate and levels of NOx [17, 18]. Researchers performed experimentation
under varying blends 10, 20 and 30% volumetric concentration with diesel and loading
25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% [19, 20]. They concluded biodiesel lowered the efficiency
and enhanced the consumption at all loads. Also, the blends derived from Sterculia
foetida biodiesel lowered the HC, CO, and NOx emissions at all loads when related to
diesel. Yuvarajan Devarajan [30] performed experimental studies on diesel engine
fueled with Ricebrain oil esterified for evaluation of emission and performance
physiognomies Experimentations revealed that blends of rice bran biodiesel
augmented the thermal efficiency and plummeted the BSFC values of the engine
[21-23]. Furthermore, the NOx, Smoke, HC, and CO also recorded a decent fall.
Shanmugam et.al [29] conducted experimentation using 1-decanol blend designated
as D70L20DEC10 under variational influence of CR (16:1, 17.5:1, and 19:1) and EGR
(0%, 10%, and 20%) on diesel engine characteristics. They found that the NOx
emission rose with rising CR and condensed with growing EGR rates. Both HC and
CO emissions dropped with higher CR values and were augmented with the insertion
of EGR. They concluded the CR 19:1 and 10% EGR rate were the best operating CI
engine parameters for the ternary blend. Esterified oils or Biodiesel have low calorific
value due to which, the combustion of fuel is better but the amount of fuel consumed
per power unit is higher [24-27]. Researchers have tried to address this issue by
varying the fuel injection pressure and timing of fuel inlet into the combustion chamber
[28-30]. Lower Biodiesel-diesel blends have slightly higher density and viscosity due
to which the fuel management systems [8-10], have to be changed for better
combustion of these denser blends [31]. Increasing the fuel inlet pressure does push
the fuel further in the compressed air and thereby enhancing the fuel-air mixing
process [31, 32]. But by doing so, the fuel pump and injector need to be changed
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[31-35]. Also, denser fuels when injected at higher pressure show higher fuel
combustion pockets thereby exhibiting, a higher amount of uncontrolled combustion
activity [16, 17]. In recent years, a lot of work is done to challenge this malfunction and
one of the ways seems to be the use of nano metal oxides [13-15]. Nano metal oxides
have a higher surface area than volume ratio, which tends to absorb the heat of
combustion and retard the ignition delay of fuel [12]. Nano fuel additives also increase
the amount of fuel combustion activity and also help in the reduction of soot formation.
In addition to this, many Nano metal oxide additives also retard the formation of CO
and HC emissions which signify cleaner fuel burning [19]. In the current paper, a blend
of used cooking oil esters-diesel with copper oxide nano fuel additives is used to
power diesel engines with variations in fuel injection pressure. The reason behind
using waste cooking is to reduce the amount of wastage of used cooking oil and also
the literature on enhancing the emission reduction using WCO and nanoadditives is
minimal.
1.1. NOVELTY OF CURRENT STUDY
The paper concentrates on the impact of variation of fuel injection pressure (FIP),
as an engine parameter and gradational dosing level of copper oxide nanoparticles
WCO20 blend. WCO20 blend was chosen because the current biofuel policy framed
by Government of India is the implementation of 20% biodiesel blending in diesel fuel.
Also, the properties observed by the 20% blend of WCO and Diesel were in line with
diesel fuel. The entire study is performed in 2 stages. In the primary stage, Copper
oxide nanoparticles were synthesized using the homogenous addition method and
subjected to nanoparticle studies such as XRD, and SEM for significance and
morphological study. Collaterally used cooking oil is transesterified using KOH and
methanol. And Finally, the synthesized Copper oxide particles are added to the
WCO20 blend (80%vol.:20 %vol. diesel-waste / used cooking oil methyl ester) at
various dosing levels of 10, 20, 30, and 40ppm to obtain nano fuel blends of
WCO20+10ppm CuO, WCO20+20ppm CuO, WCO20+30 CuO, and WCO20+40ppm
CuO. These derived four fuel blends were fuelled in a VCR-CI engine with variations
in load (25%, 20% 75%, and 100%) and fuel injection pressure variations (180bar,
210Bar, and 240Bar).
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
2.1. NANOPARTICLE BLENDS
Copper Oxide particles were synthesized using a homogenous addition method,
where 2.01 gms of potassium hydroxide and 2.87 g of Cuprous Chloride (CuCl2) were
taken and mixed in deionized water (solvent). Later, this mixture was filtered filter
separation process. The strained matrix was dried and sintered further with a sintering
temperature of 600 deg (Celsius scale). The sintered particles were subjected to
various characterization techniques to signify the formation of Copper Oxide. X-ray
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[31-35]. Also, denser fuels when injected at higher pressure show higher fuel
combustion pockets thereby exhibiting, a higher amount of uncontrolled combustion
activity [16, 17]. In recent years, a lot of work is done to challenge this malfunction and
one of the ways seems to be the use of nano metal oxides [13-15]. Nano metal oxides
have a higher surface area than volume ratio, which tends to absorb the heat of
combustion and retard the ignition delay of fuel [12]. Nano fuel additives also increase
the amount of fuel combustion activity and also help in the reduction of soot formation.
In addition to this, many Nano metal oxide additives also retard the formation of CO
and HC emissions which signify cleaner fuel burning [19]. In the current paper, a blend
of used cooking oil esters-diesel with copper oxide nano fuel additives is used to
power diesel engines with variations in fuel injection pressure. The reason behind
using waste cooking is to reduce the amount of wastage of used cooking oil and also
the literature on enhancing the emission reduction using WCO and nanoadditives is
minimal.
1.1. NOVELTY OF CURRENT STUDY
The paper concentrates on the impact of variation of fuel injection pressure (FIP),
as an engine parameter and gradational dosing level of copper oxide nanoparticles
WCO20 blend. WCO20 blend was chosen because the current biofuel policy framed
by Government of India is the implementation of 20% biodiesel blending in diesel fuel.
Also, the properties observed by the 20% blend of WCO and Diesel were in line with
diesel fuel. The entire study is performed in 2 stages. In the primary stage, Copper
oxide nanoparticles were synthesized using the homogenous addition method and
subjected to nanoparticle studies such as XRD, and SEM for significance and
morphological study. Collaterally used cooking oil is transesterified using KOH and
methanol. And Finally, the synthesized Copper oxide particles are added to the
WCO20 blend (80%vol.:20 %vol. diesel-waste / used cooking oil methyl ester) at
various dosing levels of 10, 20, 30, and 40ppm to obtain nano fuel blends of
WCO20+10ppm CuO, WCO20+20ppm CuO, WCO20+30 CuO, and WCO20+40ppm
CuO. These derived four fuel blends were fuelled in a VCR-CI engine with variations
in load (25%, 20% 75%, and 100%) and fuel injection pressure variations (180bar,
210Bar, and 240Bar).
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
2.1. NANOPARTICLE BLENDS
Copper Oxide particles were synthesized using a homogenous addition method,
where 2.01 gms of potassium hydroxide and 2.87 g of Cuprous Chloride (CuCl2) were
taken and mixed in deionized water (solvent). Later, this mixture was filtered filter
separation process. The strained matrix was dried and sintered further with a sintering
temperature of 600 deg (Celsius scale). The sintered particles were subjected to
various characterization techniques to signify the formation of Copper Oxide. X-ray
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diffraction was observed on the particles (Figure 1). The observations were noted on
the peaks observed in fig.1 which resemble JCPDS No 48-1548. Table 1 provides the
necessary data obtained from the XRD spectra analysis. The FESEM imaging of the
particles explains the flake type morphology. Figure 2 shows the FESEM images of
CuO particles. The average particle size observed under 500nm magnification was
around 289 nm.
Figure 1. X-ray diffraction of CuO nanoparticles.
Table 1. Characterization of copper oxide nano additives.
Parameters
Size
Lattice constant (c) 4.259
% phase
5.41
Crystalline size 89.35
Theoretical density
37.36 nm
Axial ratio (C/A) 5.95e5 g/cm3
Average particle size
305.59 nm
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Figure 2. FESEM of CuO nanoparticles.
2.2. BIODIESEL PREPARATION
Used cooking oil was obtained from the local restaurants that used refined rice
bran oil for cooking or frying food items. This oil was first sieved for removal of
impurities and later transesterified using a known volume of methanol and KOH as
reaction catalysts using the soxhlet apparatus [28]. The time for the transesterification
reaction was kept at 2hrs and the reaction temperature was maintained at 65 deg.
Celsius. Later the obtained esterified mixture was subjected to gravity separation,
where the bioester was separated. These derived esters were later washed several
times to remove traces of methanol and KOH. The washed used cooking oil methyl
esters were later blended with diesel to volumetric proportions of 20%vol. Methyl
esters: 80 % vol. Diesel.
2.3. PREPARATION OF TEST FUELS
Four solutions (150 ml) of Isopropyl alcohol were taken and copper Oxide
nanoparticles particles were dissolved at various concentration levels of 10, 20, 30,
and 40ppm. Later these four nano fuel solutions were added to the Used Cooking oil
methyl ester blend WCO20. Later this biodiesel having CuO nano fuel were subjected
to ultra sonication at preset rpm. Further, diestrol surfactant was added to bring up
better mixing through surface modification. So a total of 04 Biodiesel test fuels were
prepared and designated as WCO20+10ppm CuO, WCO20+20ppm CuO,
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Figure 2. FESEM of CuO nanoparticles.
2.2. BIODIESEL PREPARATION
Used cooking oil was obtained from the local restaurants that used refined rice
bran oil for cooking or frying food items. This oil was first sieved for removal of
impurities and later transesterified using a known volume of methanol and KOH as
reaction catalysts using the soxhlet apparatus [28]. The time for the transesterification
reaction was kept at 2hrs and the reaction temperature was maintained at 65 deg.
Celsius. Later the obtained esterified mixture was subjected to gravity separation,
where the bioester was separated. These derived esters were later washed several
times to remove traces of methanol and KOH. The washed used cooking oil methyl
esters were later blended with diesel to volumetric proportions of 20%vol. Methyl
esters: 80 % vol. Diesel.
2.3. PREPARATION OF TEST FUELS
Four solutions (150 ml) of Isopropyl alcohol were taken and copper Oxide
nanoparticles particles were dissolved at various concentration levels of 10, 20, 30,
and 40ppm. Later these four nano fuel solutions were added to the Used Cooking oil
methyl ester blend WCO20. Later this biodiesel having CuO nano fuel were subjected
to ultra sonication at preset rpm. Further, diestrol surfactant was added to bring up
better mixing through surface modification. So a total of 04 Biodiesel test fuels were
prepared and designated as WCO20+10ppm CuO, WCO20+20ppm CuO,
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WCO20+30 CuO, and WCO20+40ppm CuO. The properties of solutions are tabulated
in Table 2.
Table 2. Thermo physical properties of test fuels.
3. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The experimentation of 04-derived WCO20 blends having CuO particles was tested
on a Direct Fuel Injection-VCR test rig. The engine was governor controlled for a
preset speed of 1500rpm and the specifications of the engine are tabulated in Table
03. Figure 3 elaborates the line sketch of the test setup. The observation relating to
thermal performance and emissions were noted at CR17.5 and injection timing of 23
deg. bTDC. The engine was warmed by using diesel as starting fuel and later
changed for the remaining fuels. Also, the engine was allowed to run until
stabilization. The readings were noted at incremental loads of 25%, 50%, 75%, and
full engine load and at pulsating fuel injection pressures of 180bar, 210bar, and 240
bar pressures. The variation of Injection pressures was done by using calibrated
injectors of defined fuel injection pressures of 180bar, 210bar, and 240bar. The
specification of the fuel injectors is tabulated in table 04. Uncertainty analysis was
performed using all the values of instruments and emission responses. The Overall
error of the amount of uncertainty was around ±2.29%. Table 05 displays all the
instrument's range and accuracy and level of vagueness.
Property Standard WCO20 WCO20+10
ppm
WCO20+20
ppm
WCO20+30
ppm
WCO20+40
ppm Diesel
Density,
kg/m3
IS 1448
P:16 844 847 851 855 859 825
Calorific
value,
MJ/kg
IS 1448
P:6 40.52 40.66 40.69 40.72 40.67 42.62
Kinemati
c
Viscosity
at 40 0C
IS 1448
P:25 4.25 4.23 4.21 4.15 4.14 2.83
Flash
point, 0C
IS 1448
P:20 91 96 95 96 96 69
Cloud
point, 0C
IS 1448
P:10 8.9 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.2 6.2
Pour
point, 0C
IS 1448
P:10 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.7 4.7 3.4
Cetane
index
Calculativ
e Method 51 - - - - 42
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Table 3. Engine Specifications.
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of experimental engine test setup.
Manufacture Kirloskar Oil.
SFC 251 g/kWhr.
Rated power 5.4 kW at 1500
RPM
Standard CR 17.5:1
Bore 87.5 mm
Stroke 110 mm
Injection Timing 23 deg before TDC
Inlet valve open
bTDC 4.5 deg bTDC
Exhaust valve open 35.5 deg b BDC
Inlet valve close 35.5 deg a BDC
Exhaust valve close 4.5 deg a TDC
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Table 3. Engine Specifications.
Figure 3. Schematic diagram of experimental engine test setup.
Manufacture
Kirloskar Oil.
SFC
251 g/kWhr.
Rated power
5.4 kW at 1500
RPM
Standard CR
17.5:1
Bore
87.5 mm
Stroke
110 mm
Injection Timing
23 deg before TDC
Inlet valve open
bTDC
4.5 deg bTDC
Exhaust valve open
35.5 deg b BDC
Inlet valve close
35.5 deg a BDC
Exhaust valve close
4.5 deg a TDC
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Table 4. Injector specifications.
Table 5. Device specifications and terminology.
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of the engine are categorized into two stages. In the first stage, the
performance results of the engine were measured in terms of thermal efficiency, rate
of fuel consumption, and the temperature of combusted gases. In the next phase, the
emissions studies coming out of the engine are measured by using AVL make gas
analyzers and smoke meters. All Performance and emissions responses were noted
varying loads with increments of 25% loading and at static Engine Volumetric ratio of
17.5 and Fuel Injection timing of 23 deg. bTDC.
4.1. PERFORMANCE STUDIES
4.1.1. BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
The derived thermal efficiency of 04 nanoparticle-dosed WCO20 blends, WCO20
blend, and Diesel is portrayed in Figure 4. The observations were noted for 06 fuels in
incremental loads of 25%. It could be illustrated from Figure 4 that as the load is
incremented the BTHE values also rose. Also, we could so see that the addition of
CuO additives does boost the BTHE values. The amount of rise in BTHE for WCO20
with 10ppm, 20ppm, 30ppm, and 40ppm is when compared to base blend (WCO20)
and the rise thermal output observed for WCO20+10ppm, WCO20+20ppm,
Injector Make Bosch
Fuel Injection pressure 180,210, 240bar
Number of Holes 3
Type of Injection Jerk type
Nozzle Hole diameter(mm) 0.16
Device specification Range Accuracy Uncertainties
Carbon monoxides (CO) 0-10.00% ±0.01% ±0.1
Carbon Dioxides (CO2) 0-20.00% ±0.01% ±0.15
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) 0-5000 ppm ±1 ppm ±0.2
Oxygen (O2) 0-25.00% ±0.01% ±0.1
Hydrocarbons (HC) 1-1500 ppm ±1 ppm ±0.2
Exhaust gas temp. (EGT) 0-5000C ±10C ±0.1
Tachometer 0-10000 rpm ±10 rpm ±0.2
Fuel flow meter 1-30 cc ±0.1 cc ±0.5
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WCO20+30ppm, and WCO20+40ppm when compared to diesel was. This was due to
the phenomenon of secondary atomization and the micro explosion of Cu-Isopropyl
alcohol nano fuel emulsion. These emulsified fuels tend to shorten the ignition delay
and there increasing the combustion duration due to which the BTHE values were
found high. When Nano additive-alcohol solution is exposed to higher pressure and
temperature environment, leads to an explosion of alcohol. Later this explosion or
combustion further diminishes the ignition delay of the WCO20 fuel. This catalytic
combustion activity is responsible for the enhanced thermal efficiency phenomenon.
Furthermore, the initiation of higher fuel inlet pressure does provide better mixing of
air/fuel and thereby contributing to retarded fuel ignition delay. Also, we could observe
the maximum thermal efficiency was observed for WCO20 having 20ppm of CuO at
240bar. The observations found are in line with [21, 22].
Figure 4. Variation of brake thermal efficiency at varying injection pressures, loads and levels
of CuO.
4.1.2. BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
The main limiting factor why Biodiesel blends are not so extensively used is due to
the fuel consumption rates and Figure 5 exhibits the BSFC values for varying FIP(fuel
Injection pressure) and load variations. The least BSFC values for loads were shown
by diesel and this was due to the higher heating value of diesel which contributes to
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25% load
50% load
75% load
100% load
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WCO20+30ppm, and WCO20+40ppm when compared to diesel was. This was due to
the phenomenon of secondary atomization and the micro explosion of Cu-Isopropyl
alcohol nano fuel emulsion. These emulsified fuels tend to shorten the ignition delay
and there increasing the combustion duration due to which the BTHE values were
found high. When Nano additive-alcohol solution is exposed to higher pressure and
temperature environment, leads to an explosion of alcohol. Later this explosion or
combustion further diminishes the ignition delay of the WCO20 fuel. This catalytic
combustion activity is responsible for the enhanced thermal efficiency phenomenon.
Furthermore, the initiation of higher fuel inlet pressure does provide better mixing of
air/fuel and thereby contributing to retarded fuel ignition delay. Also, we could observe
the maximum thermal efficiency was observed for WCO20 having 20ppm of CuO at
240bar. The observations found are in line with [21, 22].
Figure 4. Variation of brake thermal efficiency at varying injection pressures, loads and levels
of CuO.
4.1.2. BRAKE SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
The main limiting factor why Biodiesel blends are not so extensively used is due to
the fuel consumption rates and Figure 5 exhibits the BSFC values for varying FIP(fuel
Injection pressure) and load variations. The least BSFC values for loads were shown
by diesel and this was due to the higher heating value of diesel which contributes to
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25% load
50% load
75% load
100% load
attaining higher HRR values [24]. It could be observed that when Copper oxide was
added to WCO20 blends the BSFC values does plummet to a small extent. The
percentile decline found when WCO20 with 10ppm, 20ppm, 30ppm, and 40ppm of
CuO was doped was 1.6%, 4.2%, 3.3%, and 3.2% respectively when compared to the
base blend. The addition of these oxide additives in the WCO 20 blend does retard
the fuel ignition delay and thereby time allocation for the total amount of fuel
combustion per KW of power is more. However, the values of BSFC of WCO20 with
CuO were not promising when compared to diesel. Also, it could be noted that at
higher FIP and at full load conditions, the BSFC values were least for all test fuels.
Biodiesel which is denser and has a higher flash point does require enhanced fuel
injection pressure for them to stream into denser compressed air. The amount of
decline of BSFC values when injection pressure was changed from 210bar to 240 bar
for WCO 20, WCO+10ppm of CuO, WCO+20ppm of CuO, WCO20+30ppm of CuO,
and WCO20+40ppm of CuO was 3.4%, 4.6%, 4.3%, and 4.2% respectively.
Figure 5. Variation of brake specific fuel consumption at varying injection pressures, loads
and levels of CuO.
4.1.3. EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURES
Exhaust gas temperatures (EGT) of the CI engines play a prominent role in the
formation of oxides of nitrogen emissions [18]. Also, higher combustion rates display
higher HRR and EGTs. Figure 6 explains the temperatures of exhaust gases formed
after combustion at varying Loads and FIP’s for all 06 test fuels. WCO20+20ppm
displayed Peak EGT values for 240bar pressure and at full load conditions and diesel
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displayed the least EGTs for all loads and FIP’s. The rise in EGT was found when the
FIP was changed from 210bar to 240 bar for WCO 20, WCO+10ppm of CuO,
WCO+20ppm of CuO, WCO20+30ppm of CuO, and WCO20+40ppm of CuO was
5.6%, 6.2%, 8.3%, 7.8%, and 7.7% respectively when compared to diesel. Also, the
EGT ascent percentile at 240bar for WCO+10ppm of CuO, WCO+20ppm of CuO,
WCO20+30ppm of CuO, and WCO20+40ppm of CuO was 3.6%, 4.5%, 3.9%, and
3.7% respectively when compared with Base blend WCO20. This might be due to
higher injection pressure and good cetane rating of fuel which tend to control the
combustion activity and thereby reduce the fuel ignition delay.
Figure 6. Variation of exhaust gas tempratures at varying injection pressures, loads and
levels of CuO.
4.2. EMISSION STUDIES
4.2.1. OXIDES OF CARBON
During the oxidation of fuel, the products do have the presence of carbon dioxide
as a result. Furthermore, its conventional wisdom that, the higher the CO2 levels, the
better the combustion of fuel [4, 6]. On the other hand, the presence of CO in the
exhaust gases of fuel combustion signifies incomplete combustion. It can be observed
from Figure 7 and Figure 8 the percentile presence of CO and CO2, respectively, for
all 6 fuels incremental load and fuel injection pressure. It could be observed that
amount of CO2 increases with increasing load and fuel injection pressure. Diesel
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displayed the least EGTs for all loads and FIP’s. The rise in EGT was found when the
FIP was changed from 210bar to 240 bar for WCO 20, WCO+10ppm of CuO,
WCO+20ppm of CuO, WCO20+30ppm of CuO, and WCO20+40ppm of CuO was
5.6%, 6.2%, 8.3%, 7.8%, and 7.7% respectively when compared to diesel. Also, the
EGT ascent percentile at 240bar for WCO+10ppm of CuO, WCO+20ppm of CuO,
WCO20+30ppm of CuO, and WCO20+40ppm of CuO was 3.6%, 4.5%, 3.9%, and
3.7% respectively when compared with Base blend WCO20. This might be due to
higher injection pressure and good cetane rating of fuel which tend to control the
combustion activity and thereby reduce the fuel ignition delay.
Figure 6. Variation of exhaust gas tempratures at varying injection pressures, loads and
levels of CuO.
4.2. EMISSION STUDIES
4.2.1. OXIDES OF CARBON
During the oxidation of fuel, the products do have the presence of carbon dioxide
as a result. Furthermore, its conventional wisdom that, the higher the CO2 levels, the
better the combustion of fuel [4, 6]. On the other hand, the presence of CO in the
exhaust gases of fuel combustion signifies incomplete combustion. It can be observed
from Figure 7 and Figure 8 the percentile presence of CO and CO2, respectively, for
all 6 fuels incremental load and fuel injection pressure. It could be observed that
amount of CO2 increases with increasing load and fuel injection pressure. Diesel
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exhibits the least CO2 levels when compared with WCO20. Also, the presence of CuO
in WCO20 shoots up the levels of CO2. The percentile rise in CO2 levels when CuO
is added in WCO with adulteration levels of 10ppm, 20ppm, 30ppm, and 40ppm is
2.8%, 4.9%. 4.4% and 3.7% when compared with WCO20. Also, with the
enhancement in the Injection pressure from 210bar to 240bar, the rise in CO2 levels
found were 2.3%, 3.2%, 3.5%, 7.6%, 6.1%, and 6.2% for Diesel, WCO 20,
WCO+10ppm of CuO, WCO+20ppm of CuO, WCO+30ppm of CuO, and
WCO+40ppm of CuO respectively. Emulsified esters have good cetane number and
the presence of nanoadditives does retard the fuel ignition delay and thereby
incrementation combustion duration due to which the formation of dioxides are more
than CO.
Figure 7. Variation of CO2 emissions at varying injection pressures, loads and levels of CuO.
4.2.2. CARBON MONOXIDE
When the levels of carbon dioxide rise, the levels of CO reduce for test fuels.
Figure 8 explains the levels of CO emissions. It could be observed that Diesel fuel
combustion provides the highest CO levels when compared to other fuels. The levels
of CO declined with a gradual rise in engine loads and fuel injection pressure which
are in line with the findings of [7, 11]. Also, the addition of CuO in the base blend
further reduces the CO emission. The percentile descent in CO levels when CuO is
added in WCO20 with sullying levels of 10ppm, 20ppm, 30ppm, and 40ppm is 1.9%,
3.8%. 3.4% and 3.2% respectively when compared with the base blend. Also, with the
enhancement in the Injection pressure from 210bar to 240bar, the rise in CO2 levels
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